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<title>Operation Opera</title>

Operation Opera

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</style><table class="infobox vevent" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above summary" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Operation Opera</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;">Part of the <a href="Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Operational scope</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="Strategic_victory" title="Strategic victory">Strategic</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Location</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display:inline;" class="location"><a href="Tuwaitha_Nuclear_Research_Center" title="Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center">Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center</a>, <a href="Diyala_Governorate" title="Diyala Governorate">Diyala Governorate</a>, <a href="Ba'athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Iraq</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">

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</style><a class="external text" href="geo:33.20333333333333,44.51861111111111">33°12′12″N 44°31′07″E / 33.20333°N 44.51861°E / 33.20333; 44.51861</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Planned by</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">

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<ul><li><a href="Menachem_Begin" title="Menachem Begin">Menachem Begin</a> (<a href="Prime_Minister_of_Israel" title="Prime Minister of Israel">Prime Minister of Israel</a>)</li>

<li><a href="David_Ivry" title="David Ivry">David Ivry</a> (Commander, Israeli Air Force)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Objective</th><td class="infobox-data">Destruction of Iraq's Osirak nuclear reactor</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Date</th><td class="infobox-data">7 June 1981</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Executed by</th><td class="infobox-data"> <a href="Israeli_Air_Force" title="Israeli Air Force">Israeli Air Force</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Outcome</th><td class="infobox-data">Israeli operational success

<ul><li>Osirak nuclear reactor destroyed</li>

<li><a href="Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Iraqi nuclear program</a> severely disturbed</li></ul>

</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Casualties</th><td class="infobox-data">10 Iraqi soldiers, 1 <a href="France" title="France">French</a> civilian killed</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;"></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1291884410">

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</style><div class="center"><div class="locmap" style="width:220px;float:none;clear:both;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto"><div style="width:220px;padding:0"><div style="position:relative;width:220px"><div class="od notheme" style="top:48.351%;left:58.272%;font-size:91%"><div class="id" style="left:-4px;top:-4px"></div><div class="pr" style="width:6em;left:5px"><div>Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Centre</div></div></div></div><div style="padding-top:0.2em">Location of the Osirak nuclear reactor within Iraq</div></div></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table>

Operation Opera (<a href="Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>: מִבְצָע אוֹפֵּרָה),<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> also known as Operation Babylon,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> was a surprise airstrike conducted by the <a href="Israeli_Air_Force" title="Israeli Air Force">Israeli Air Force</a> on 7 June 1981, which destroyed an unfinished <a href="Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Iraqi nuclear reactor</a> located 17 kilometres (11 miles) southeast of <a href="Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, <a href="Ba'athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Iraq</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bbc1-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-fainberg-5">[5]</a> The Israeli operation came a year after the <a href="Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Air_Force" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force">Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force</a> had caused minor damage to the <a href="Tuwaitha_Nuclear_Research_Center" title="Tuwaitha Nuclear Research Center">same nuclear facility</a> in <a href="Operation_Scorch_Sword" title="Operation Scorch Sword">Operation Scorch Sword</a>, with the damage having been subsequently repaired by <a href="France" title="France">French</a> technicians. Operation Opera, and related <a href="Cabinet_of_Israel" title="Cabinet of Israel">Israeli government</a> statements following it, established the <a href="Begin_Doctrine" title="Begin Doctrine">Begin Doctrine</a>, which explicitly stated the strike was not an anomaly, but instead "a precedent for every future government in Israel". Israel's <a href="Counter-proliferation" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-proliferation">counter-proliferation</a> <a href="Preventive_war" title="Preventive war">preventive strike</a> added another dimension to its existing <a href="Policy_of_deliberate_ambiguity" title="Policy of deliberate ambiguity">policy of deliberate ambiguity</a>, as it related to the <a href="Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">nuclear weapons</a> capability of other states in the region.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a>

In 1976, Iraq purchased an Osiris-class nuclear reactor from France.<a href="#cite_note-osiris-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> While Iraq and France maintained that the reactor, named Osirak by the French, was intended for peaceful scientific research,<a href="#cite_note-worldbook-9">[9]</a> the Israelis viewed the reactor with suspicion, believing it was designed to produce nuclear weapons that could escalate the ongoing <a href="Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a>.<a href="#cite_note-bbc1-3">[3]</a> On 7 June 1981, a flight of Israeli Air Force <a href="General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon" title="General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon">F-16A</a> fighter aircraft, with an escort of <a href="McDonnell_Douglas_F-15_Eagle" title="McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle">F-15As</a>, bombed the Osirak reactor deep inside Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-scott-10">[10]</a> Israel called the operation an act of self-defense, saying that the reactor had "less than a month to go" before "it might have become <a href="Nuclear_reactor_physics#Criticality" title="Nuclear reactor physics">critical</a>."<a href="#cite_note-scott132-11">[11]</a> The airstrike reportedly killed ten <a href="Iraqi_Armed_Forces" title="Iraqi Armed Forces">Iraqi soldiers</a> and one French civilian.<a href="#cite_note-polakow-12">[12]</a> The attack took place about three weeks before the <a href="1981_Israeli_legislative_election" title="1981 Israeli legislative election">1981 Israeli legislative elections</a> for the <a href="Knesset" title="Knesset">Knesset</a>.<a href="#cite_note-perryIQP-13">[13]</a>

At the time of its occurrence, the attack was met with sharp international criticism, including in the <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a>, and Israel was rebuked by the <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> and <a href="United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">General Assembly</a> in two separate resolutions.<a href="#cite_note-steele-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-scres-15">[15]</a> Media reactions were also negative: "Israel's sneak attack ... was an act of inexcusable and short-sighted aggression",<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> wrote <a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>, while the <a href="Los_Angeles_Times" title="Los Angeles Times">Los Angeles Times</a> called it "<a href="State-sponsored_terrorism" title="State-sponsored terrorism">state-sponsored terrorism</a>".<a href="#cite_note-steele-14">[14]</a> The destruction of Iraq's Osirak reactor has been cited as an example of a <a href="Preventive_war" title="Preventive war">preventive strike</a> in contemporary scholarship on <a href="International_law" title="International law">international law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-shue-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-council-18">[18]</a> The efficacy of the attack is debated by historians,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> who acknowledge that it brought Iraq back from the brink of nuclear capability but drove its weapons program underground and cemented <a href="President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">Iraqi president</a> <a href="Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>'s future ambitions for acquiring nuclear weapons.

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Iraq's_nuclear_program">Iraq's nuclear program</h2></div>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Iraq and weapons of mass destruction</a></div>

Iraq had established a nuclear program sometime in the 1960s, and in the mid-1970s looked to expand it through the acquisition of a nuclear reactor.<a href="#cite_note-perl40-20">[20]</a> After failing to convince the <a href="Cabinet_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Cabinet of France">French Government</a> to sell them a <a href="Gas_cooled_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas cooled reactor">gas cooled graphite moderated</a> plutonium-<a href="Production_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Production reactor">producing reactor</a> and <a href="Nuclear_reprocessing" title="Nuclear reprocessing">reprocessing plant</a>, and likewise failing to convince the Italian government to sell them a Cirene reactor, the <a href="Government_of_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of Iraq">Iraqi government</a> convinced the French government to sell them an Osiris-class <a href="Research_reactor" title="Research reactor">research reactor</a>.<a href="#cite_note-perl4142-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> The purchase also included a smaller accompanying Isis-type reactor, the sale of 72 kilograms of 93% <a href="Enriched_uranium" title="Enriched uranium">enriched uranium</a> and the training of personnel.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The total cost has been given as $300 million (equivalent to $1.62 billion in 2024).<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> In November 1975, the countries signed a nuclear cooperation agreement and in 1976, the sale of the reactor was finalized.<a href="#cite_note-perl4142-21">[21]</a>

Construction for the 40-<a href="Megawatt" class="mw-redirect" title="Megawatt">megawatt</a> light-water nuclear reactor began in 1979 at the Al Tuwaitha Nuclear Center near <a href="Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-shlomo-25">[25]</a> The main reactor was dubbed Osirak (Osiraq) by the French, blending the name of Iraq with that of the reactor class. Iraq named the main reactor Tammuz 1 (<a href="Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: تموز) and the smaller Tammuz 2.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> <a href="Tammuz_(Babylonian_calendar)" title="Tammuz (Babylonian calendar)">Tammuz</a> was the <a href="Babylonian_calendar" title="Babylonian calendar">Babylonian</a> month when the <a href="Ba'ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a> had come to power in 1968.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> On 6 April 1979, Israeli agents sabotaged the Osirak reactor awaiting shipment to Iraq at <a href="La_Seyne-sur-Mer" title="La Seyne-sur-Mer">La Seyne-sur-Mer</a> in France.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> On 14 June 1980, Mossad agents assassinated <a href="Yahya_El_Mashad" title="Yahya El Mashad">Yahya El Mashad</a>, an Egyptian nuclear scientist who headed the Iraqi nuclear program, in a hotel in Paris.<a href="#cite_note-berfman-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-hider-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> In July 1980, Iraq received from France a shipment of approximately 12.5 kilograms of highly enriched uranium fuel to be used in the reactor. The shipment was the first of a planned six deliveries totalling 72 kilograms.<a href="#cite_note-holroyd-32">[32]</a> It was reportedly stipulated in the purchase agreement that no more than two HEU fuel loadings, 24 kilograms, could be in Iraq at any time.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a>

Iraq and France claimed that the Iraqi reactor was intended for peaceful scientific research.<a href="#cite_note-worldbook-9">[9]</a> Agreements between France and Iraq excluded military use.<a href="#cite_note-un277-34">[34]</a> The American private intelligence agency <a href="STRATFOR" class="mw-redirect" title="STRATFOR">STRATFOR</a> wrote in 2007 that the uranium-fueled reactor "was believed to be on the verge of producing plutonium for a weapons program".<a href="#cite_note-stratfor-35">[35]</a> In a 2003 speech, <a href="Richard_Wilson_(physicist)" title="Richard Wilson (physicist)">Richard Wilson</a>, a professor of physics at <a href="Harvard_University" title="Harvard University">Harvard University</a> who visually inspected the partially damaged reactor in December 1982, said that "to collect enough plutonium [for a nuclear weapon] using Osirak would've taken decades, not years".<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> In 2005, Wilson further commented in <a href="The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a>: "The Osirak reactor that was bombed by Israel in June 1981 was explicitly designed by the French engineer Yves Girard to be unsuitable for making bombs. That was obvious to me on my 1982 visit".<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Elsewhere Wilson has stated that contrary to claims that the bombing of the Iraqi Osirak reactor delayed Iraq's nuclear bomb program, the Iraqi nuclear program before 1981 was peaceful, and the Osirak reactor was not only unsuited to making bombs but was under intensive safeguards.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a>

In an interview in 2012, Wilson again emphasised: "The Iraqis couldn't have been developing a nuclear weapon at Osirak. I challenge any scientist in the world to show me how they could have done so."<a href="#cite_note-Wilson_2012-39">[39]</a>

Iraq was a signatory to the <a href="Nuclear_Non-Proliferation_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a>, placing its reactors under <a href="International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> (IAEA) safeguards.<a href="#cite_note-perl40-20">[20]</a> In October 1981, the <a href="Bulletin_of_the_Atomic_Scientists" title="Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists">Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists</a> published excerpts from the testimony of Roger Richter, a former IAEA inspector who described the weaknesses of the agency's nuclear safeguards to the <a href="United_States_Senate_Committee_on_Foreign_Relations" title="United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations">United States Senate Committee on Foreign Relations</a>. Richter testified that only part of Iraq's nuclear installation was under safeguard and that the most sensitive facilities were not even subject to safeguards.<a href="#cite_note-bulletin1-40">[40]</a> IAEA's Director-General <a href="Sigvard_Eklund" title="Sigvard Eklund">Sigvard Eklund</a> issued a rebuttal saying that Richter had never inspected Osirak and had never been assigned to inspect facilities in the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-bulletin1-40">[40]</a> Eklund claimed that the safeguards procedures were effective and that they were supplemented by precautionary measures taken by the nuclear suppliers.<a href="#cite_note-bulletin1-40">[40]</a> Anthony Fainberg, a physicist at the <a href="Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a>, disputed Richter's claim that a fuel processing program for the manufacturing of nuclear weapons could have been conducted secretly.<a href="#cite_note-bulletin1-40">[40]</a> Fainberg wrote that there was barely enough fuel on the site to make one bomb, and that the presence of hundreds of foreign technicians would have made it impossible for the Iraqis to take the necessary steps without being discovered.<a href="#cite_note-fainberg-5">[5]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Strategy_and_diplomacy">Strategy and diplomacy</h2></div>

In Israel, discussions on which strategy to adopt in response to the Iraqi reactor development were taking place as early as <a href="Yitzhak_Rabin" title="Yitzhak Rabin">Yitzhak Rabin's</a> <a href="Seventeenth_government_of_Israel" title="Seventeenth government of Israel">first term in office</a> (1974–1977).<a href="#cite_note-perl67-41">[41]</a> Reportedly, planning and training for the operation began during this time.<a href="#cite_note-perl67-41">[41]</a> After <a href="Menachem_Begin" title="Menachem Begin">Menachem Begin</a> became Prime Minister in 1977 the preparations intensified; Begin authorized the building of a full-scale model of the Iraqi reactor which Israeli pilots could practice bombing.<a href="#cite_note-simons-42">[42]</a> Three Israeli pilots died in accidents while training for the mission.<a href="#cite_note-solis-43">[43]</a>

Israel's Foreign Minister <a href="Moshe_Dayan" title="Moshe Dayan">Moshe Dayan</a> initiated diplomatic negotiations with France, the United States and Italy (Israel maintained that some Italian firms acted as suppliers and sub-contractors) over the matter but failed to obtain assurances that the reactor program would be halted. In addition Israel was not able to convince the French governments of <a href="Val%C3%A9ry_Giscard_d'Estaing" title="Valéry Giscard d'Estaing">Valéry Giscard d'Estaing</a> and <a href="Fran%C3%A7ois_Mitterrand" title="François Mitterrand">François Mitterrand</a> to cease aiding the Iraqi nuclear program.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <a href="Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> consistently maintained that Osirak was intended for peaceful purposes.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> Begin considered the diplomatic options fruitless, and worried that prolonging the decision to attack would lead to a fatal inability to act in response to the perceived threat.<a href="#cite_note-council-18">[18]</a> According to Karl P. Mueller, in the spring of 1979, Begin had reached the conclusion that an anticipatory attack was necessary.<a href="#cite_note-mueller-46">[46]</a>

<a href="Anthony_Cordesman" title="Anthony Cordesman">Anthony Cordesman</a> writes that the Israeli intelligence agency <a href="Mossad" title="Mossad">Mossad</a> conducted a series of <a href="Clandestine_operation" title="Clandestine operation">clandestine operations</a> to halt construction or destroy the reactor.<a href="#cite_note-cordes606-47">[47]</a> In April 1979, Mossad agents in France allegedly planted a bomb that destroyed the reactor's first set of core structures while they were awaiting shipment to Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-cordes606-47">[47]</a> In June 1980, Mossad agents are said to have assassinated <a href="Yahya_El_Mashad" title="Yahya El Mashad">Yehia El Mashad</a>, an Egyptian atomic scientist working on the Iraqi nuclear program.<a href="#cite_note-styan-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-hurst-49">[49]</a> Shortly afterward, two other Iraqi engineers working on the program, Salman Rashid and <a href="Abdul_Rasul_(Iraqi_scientist)" title="Abdul Rasul (Iraqi scientist)">Abdul Rasul</a>, fell ill and died on trips to Switzerland and France respectively, with Mossad suspected of having poisoned them. It has also been claimed that the Mossad bombed several of the French and Italian companies it suspected of working on the project, and sent threatening letters to top officials and technicians, causing several French technicians to resign.<a href="#cite_note-Bergman-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-cordes606-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-hurst-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Following the bombing in April 1979, France inserted a clause in its agreement with Iraq saying that French personnel would have to supervise the Osirak reactor on-site for a period of ten years.<a href="#cite_note-styan-48">[48]</a>

The alleged assassinations caused widespread panic among Iraqi nuclear scientists. Saddam Hussein, worried over the effect on the morale of the project's scientists, awarded cash bonuses and luxury cars to all senior scientists. Meshad's widow was awarded $300,000 and promised that she and her children would receive a lifelong pension. Iraqi scientists were given financial bonuses for international travel, which they had become increasingly fearful of, and received instructions on how to avoid potential Mossad assassinations.<a href="#cite_note-Bergman-50">[50]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Iranian_attack">Iranian attack</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Operation_Scorch_Sword" title="Operation Scorch Sword">Operation Scorch Sword</a></div>

In an air attack codenamed <a href="Operation_Scorch_Sword" title="Operation Scorch Sword">Operation Scorch Sword</a>, Iran attacked and damaged the site on 30 September 1980, with two <a href="F-4_Phantom_II" class="mw-redirect" title="F-4 Phantom II">F-4 Phantoms</a>, shortly after the outbreak of the <a href="Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-airenthusiast-52">[52]</a> At the onset of the war, <a href="Yehoshua_Sagi" title="Yehoshua Sagi">Yehoshua Sagi</a>, director of the Israeli <a href="Military_Intelligence_Directorate_(Israel)" title="Military Intelligence Directorate (Israel)">Military Intelligence Directorate</a>, publicly urged the Iranians to bomb the reactor.<a href="#cite_note-airenthusiast-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-note39-53">[53]</a> The attack was the first on a <a href="Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a> and only the third on a nuclear facility in history. It was also the first instance of a <a href="Preventive_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Preventive attack">preventive attack</a> on a nuclear reactor which aimed to forestall the development of a nuclear weapon.<a href="#cite_note-note39-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-reiter-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-mcnair41-55">[55]</a>

Due to last minute Iranian concerns that the reactor had been already fueled and could release <a href="Radioactive_fallout" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive fallout">radioactive fallout</a> if hit, they did not attack the actual reactor dome, but the control room, research/centrifuge facilities, and the adjacent buildings. The targets were struck and the buildings were damaged, along with the plant cooling mechanisms.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-56">[56]</a> Two other F-4s simultaneously hit Baghdad's main power plant, knocking the city's electricity out for nearly two days. The Iraqis denied any major damage. The French and Italian technicians promptly left Iraq, and nearly withdrew from the project, but some later returned in February 1981 and began to repair the damage.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-56">[56]</a>

<a href="Trita_Parsi" title="Trita Parsi">Trita Parsi</a>, in the book Treacherous Alliance: The Secret Dealings of Israel, Iran, and the United States, writes that a senior Israeli official met with a representative of the <a href="Ayatollah_Khomeini" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayatollah Khomeini">Ayatollah Khomeini</a> in France one month prior to the Israeli attack.<a href="#cite_note-parsi-57">[57]</a> The source of the assertion is <a href="Ari_Ben-Menashe" title="Ari Ben-Menashe">Ari Ben-Menashe</a>, a former Israeli government employee. At the alleged meeting, the Iranians explained details of their 1980 attack on the site, and agreed to let Israeli planes land at an Iranian airfield in <a href="Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a> in the case of an emergency.<a href="#cite_note-parsi-57">[57]</a> While the new Iranian government was officially hostile to Israel, due to both nations having a common enemy (Iraq), and Iranian fears that the Iraqis would create an atomic bomb to use on them, they clandestinely worked with Israel to forestall such a development.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-56">[56]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Operational_planning">Operational planning</h3></div>

The distance between Israeli military bases and the reactor site was significant—over 1,600 km (990 mi; 860 nmi).<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The Israeli planes would have to violate <a href="Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordanian</a> and/or <a href="Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi</a> airspace in a covert flight over foreign territory, making <a href="Aerial_refueling" title="Aerial refueling">mid-air refueling</a> unfeasible.<a href="#cite_note-solis-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-raas-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> The Israelis eventually concluded that a squadron of heavily fueled and heavily armed <a href="General_Dynamics_F-16_Fighting_Falcon" title="General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon">F-16As</a>, with a group of <a href="McDonnell_Douglas_F-15_Eagle" title="McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle">F-15As</a> to provide air cover and fighter support, could perform a <a href="Surgical_strike" title="Surgical strike">surgical strike</a> to eliminate the reactor site without having to refuel.<a href="#cite_note-eitan-61">[61]</a>

The decision to go through with the operation was hotly contested within Begin's government.<a href="#cite_note-options-62">[62]</a> <a href="Ariel_Sharon" title="Ariel Sharon">Ariel Sharon</a>, a member of the <a href="Security_Cabinet_of_Israel" title="Security Cabinet of Israel">Security Cabinet</a>, later said that he was among those who advocated bombing the reactor.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Dayan, Defense Minister (until late 1980) <a href="Ezer_Weizman" title="Ezer Weizman">Ezer Weizman</a> and Deputy Prime Minister <a href="Yigael_Yadin" title="Yigael Yadin">Yigael Yadin</a> were among those opposed.<a href="#cite_note-mueller-46">[46]</a> According to Mueller, "the principal difference between the hawks and doves on this issue lay in their estimation of the likely international political costs of an air strike".<a href="#cite_note-mueller-46">[46]</a> Shai Feldman specifies that "[those opposed] feared that the operation would derail the fragile Israeli-Egyptian peace process, fuel Arab anxieties about Israel's profile in the region, and damage Israel-French relations".<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Begin and his supporters, including Sharon, were far less pessimistic than their opponents about the political fallout.<a href="#cite_note-mueller-46">[46]</a> <a href="Yehoshua_Saguy" class="mw-redirect" title="Yehoshua Saguy">Yehoshua Saguy</a> argued for continued efforts in trying to find a non-military solution as it would take the Iraqis five to ten years to produce the material necessary for a nuclear weapon.<a href="#cite_note-options-62">[62]</a> In the end, Begin chose to order the attack based on a worst-case estimate where a weapon could be created in one to two years time.<a href="#cite_note-options-62">[62]</a> According to <a href="Ronen_Bergman" title="Ronen Bergman">Ronen Bergman</a>, Mossad director <a href="Yitzhak_Hofi" title="Yitzhak Hofi">Yitzhak Hofi</a> told Begin in October 1980 that the Mossad's campaign of assassinations and sabotage could not stop the Iraqi nuclear program and that the only way to put an end to it was an airstrike.<a href="#cite_note-Bergman-50">[50]</a>

Prime Minister Begin defended the timing of the bombing stating that a later attack, after the reactor had become operational, could cause lethal <a href="Radioactive_contamination" title="Radioactive contamination">radioactive contamination</a> doses to reach all the way to Baghdad.<a href="#cite_note-shlomo-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> An analysis by Warren Donnelly of the United States <a href="Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a> concluded that "it would be most unlikely for an attack with conventional bombs upon the reactor when operating to have caused lethal exposures to radioactivity in Baghdad, although some people at the reactor site might receive some exposure".<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> This was similarly the conclusion of Herbert Goldstein of Columbia University using <a href="IAEA" class="mw-redirect" title="IAEA">IAEA</a> release factors, the lethal contamination would be confined to a close proximity to the reactor and small amounts of radiation would be detectable in Baghdad under the assumption that winds were blowing in that direction.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a>

In October 1980, <a href="Mossad" title="Mossad">Mossad</a> reported to Begin that the Osirak reactor would be fueled and operational by June 1981.<a href="#cite_note-raas-59">[59]</a> This assessment was significantly aided by reconnaissance photos supplied by the United States, specifically using the <a href="KH-11_KENNEN" title="KH-11 KENNEN">KH-11 KENNEN</a> satellite.<a href="#cite_note-solis-43">[43]</a> French technicians installing the reactor later said it was scheduled to become operational only by the end of 1981.<a href="#cite_note-solis-43">[43]</a> Nonetheless, in October 1980, the Israeli cabinet (with Dayan absent) finally voted 10–6 in favor of launching the attack.<a href="#cite_note-mueller-46">[46]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Preliminary_Israeli/Iranian_actions">Preliminary Israeli/Iranian actions</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="H-3_airstrike" title="H-3 airstrike">H-3 airstrike</a></div>

After the approval for Operation Opera, the Israelis began to plan their mission against Osirak. The basic procedure for the airstrike had been formulated as early as 1979.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-56">[56]</a> However, the Israelis needed photographic intelligence about the layout of the plant. That task allegedly fell to the Iranians.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-56">[56]</a> Rather than carrying out a follow-up air raid after their September attack, on 30 November 1980, an Iranian <a href="F-4_Phantom" class="mw-redirect" title="F-4 Phantom">F-4 Phantom</a> reconnaissance jet took pictures of the Osirak reactor. The photographs were allegedly placed in a top-secret metal container, and certain elements of the Iranian military delivered them to the Israelis. With these photographs, the Israelis began to plan out Operation Opera.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-56">[56]</a>

A team of Israeli pilots using <a href="A-4_Skyhawk" class="mw-redirect" title="A-4 Skyhawk">A-4 Skyhawk</a> aircraft began practicing over the <a href="Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a> for the raid. The Israelis shortly afterwards received their first agreed delivery of <a href="F-16_Fighting_Falcon" class="mw-redirect" title="F-16 Fighting Falcon">F-16 Fighting Falcon</a> aircraft (the first batch was originally earmarked for Iran, but because of the <a href="Iranian_Revolution" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution of 1979</a>, the Israeli Air Force received theirs ahead of schedule). The new F-16s would be used for the raid.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-56">[56]</a> Israeli F-4 Phantoms also ran reconnaissance missions over areas of southern and western Iraq. While the Iraqi Air Force was busy fighting the Iranians, on one occasion, an Iraqi <a href="MiG-21" class="mw-redirect" title="MiG-21">MiG-21</a> chased an Israeli F-4; the Iraqi jet ran out of fuel and the pilot was forced to <a href="Ejection_seat" title="Ejection seat">eject</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-56">[56]</a> However, in their missions, the Israelis discovered a blind area on Iraqi radar, on the border with Saudi Arabia. While the Iraqis were aware of the blind area, they did not remedy the problem because they did not expect a war with Saudi Arabia.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-56">[56]</a>

The Iraqi Air Force was a potential threat to the Israelis (as the MiG-21 interception showed) and it somewhat deterred Israel from attacking yet.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-56">[56]</a> However, Israel had an advantage in that Iraq was preoccupied fighting Iran. On 4 April 1981, the Iranian Air Force launched a major attack on Iraq's <a href="H-3_Air_Base" title="H-3 Air Base">H-3 airbase</a> in the western part of the country (near Jordan and Israel). Eight Iranian F-4 Phantoms carried out the long range bombing mission and struck the airbase.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-Farrokh_03-68">[68]</a> Iran claimed that 48 Iraqi aircraft were destroyed, although US intelligence concluded that 27 aircraft were destroyed and 11 others damaged. Among the aircraft hit were two <a href="Tu-22_Blinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Tu-22 Blinder">Tu-22 Blinder</a> and three <a href="Tu-16" class="mw-redirect" title="Tu-16">Tu-16 Badger</a> <a href="Strategic_bombers" class="mw-redirect" title="Strategic bombers">strategic bombers</a> (which could have been used to retaliate against Israel in the event of an attack).<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-56">[56]</a> The attack was a severe blow to Iraqi airpower, and largely gave Iran air superiority over Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-Farrokh_03-68">[68]</a> Israeli reconnaissance planes had been monitoring Iraq during the attack, and observed that the Iraqi Air Force had been severely degraded and their retaliatory capacity had been weakened.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-56">[56]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attack">Attack</h2></div>

<a href="Yehuda_Zvi_Blum" title="Yehuda Zvi Blum">Yehuda Zvi Blum</a>, in a speech to the <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> following the attack, claimed that the operation was launched on a Sunday afternoon under the assumption that workers present on the site, including foreign experts employed at the reactor, would have left.<a href="#cite_note-scott132-11">[11]</a> Notwithstanding this precaution, there were hundreds of French workers and other nationals at the plant at the time of the raid.<a href="#cite_note-simons-42">[42]</a>

The attack squadron consisted of eight <a href="F-16_Fighting_Falcon" class="mw-redirect" title="F-16 Fighting Falcon">F-16As</a>, each with two unguided <a href="Mark_84_bomb" title="Mark 84 bomb">Mark-84</a> 2,000-pound (910 kg) <a href="Delay-action_bomb" title="Delay-action bomb">delay-action bombs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-raas-59">[59]</a> A flight of six <a href="F-15_Eagle" class="mw-redirect" title="F-15 Eagle">F-15As</a> was assigned to the operation to provide fighter support.<a href="#cite_note-solis-43">[43]</a> The F-16 pilots were Ze'ev Raz, <a href="Amos_Yadlin" title="Amos Yadlin">Amos Yadlin</a>, Dobbi Yaffe, Hagai Katz, <a href="Amir_Nachumi" title="Amir Nachumi">Amir Nachumi</a>, <a href="Iftach_Spector" title="Iftach Spector">Iftach Spector</a>, <a href="Relik_Shafir" title="Relik Shafir">Relik Shafir</a>, and <a href="Ilan_Ramon" title="Ilan Ramon">Ilan Ramon</a>. Raz led the attack and was later decorated by the Chief of Staff for his leadership. Ramon, who was the youngest pilot to participate in the operation, later became the first Israeli astronaut and died in the <a href="Space_Shuttle_Columbia_disaster" title="Space Shuttle Columbia disaster">Space Shuttle Columbia disaster</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a>

The operation started on 7 June 1981, at 15:55 local time (12:55 <a href="GMT" class="mw-redirect" title="GMT">GMT</a>). The Israeli planes left <a href="Taba_International_Airport" title="Taba International Airport">Etzion Airbase</a>, flying unchallenged in <a href="Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordanian</a> and <a href="Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi</a> airspace.<a href="#cite_note-eitan-61">[61]</a> To avoid detection, the Israeli pilots conversed in Saudi-accented Arabic while in Jordanian airspace and told Jordanian air controllers that they were a Saudi patrol that had gone off course.<a href="#cite_note-simons-42">[42]</a> While flying over Saudi Arabia, they pretended to be Jordanians, using Jordanian radio signals and formations.<a href="#cite_note-simons-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> The Israeli planes were so heavily loaded that the external fuel tanks that had been mounted on the planes were exhausted in-flight. The tanks were jettisoned over the <a href="Nafud_desert" title="Nafud desert">Saudi desert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-eitan-61">[61]</a>

<a href="Hussein_of_Jordan" title="Hussein of Jordan">King Hussein</a> of Jordan, vacationing in the <a href="Gulf_of_Aqaba" title="Gulf of Aqaba">Gulf of Aqaba</a>, witnessed the planes overfly his yacht, and noticed their Israeli markings. Taking into account the location, heading, and armament of the jets, Hussein quickly deduced the Iraqi reactor to be the most probable target. Hussein immediately contacted his government and ordered a warning to be sent to the Iraqis. However, due to a communication failure the message was never received and the Israeli planes entered Iraqi airspace undetected.<a href="#cite_note-eitan-61">[61]</a> Upon reaching Iraqi airspace, the squadron split up, with two of the F-15s forming close escort to the F-16 squadron, and the remaining F-15s dispersing into Iraqi airspace as a diversion and ready back-up. The attack squadron descended to 30 m (98 ft) over the Iraqi desert, attempting to fly under the radar of the Iraqi defences.<a href="#cite_note-eitan-61">[61]</a>

At 18:35 local time (14:35 <a href="GMT" class="mw-redirect" title="GMT">GMT</a>), 20 km (12 mi) from the Osirak reactor complex, the F-16 formation climbed to 2,100 m (6,900 ft) and went into a 35-degree dive at 1,100 km/h (680 mph), aimed at the reactor complex. At 1,100 m (3,600 ft), the F-16s began releasing the Mark 84 bombs in pairs, at 5-second intervals.<a href="#cite_note-eitan-61">[61]</a> At least eight of the sixteen released bombs struck the containment dome of the reactor.<a href="#cite_note-raas-59">[59]</a> It was later revealed that half an hour before the Israeli planes arrived, a group of Iraqi soldiers manning anti-aircraft defenses had left their posts for an afternoon meal, turning off their radars.<a href="#cite_note-solis-43">[43]</a> The Israeli planes were still intercepted by Iraqi defenses but managed to evade the remaining anti-aircraft fire.<a href="#cite_note-solis-43">[43]</a> The squadron climbed to high altitude and started their return to Israel. The attack lasted less than two minutes.<a href="#cite_note-reiter-54">[54]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="International_political_reactions">International political reactions</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_487" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 487">United Nations Security Council Resolution 487</a></div>

International response at the United Nations took two paths. The <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> issued a unanimous and almost immediate response on 19 June 1981, following eight meetings and statements from Iraq and the <a href="International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a>. Security Council Resolution 487<a href="#cite_note-scres-15">[15]</a> strongly condemned the attack as a "clear violation of the Charter of the United Nations and the norms of international conduct" and called on Israel to refrain from such attacks in the future; the Council recognised the right of Iraq to "establish programmes of technological and nuclear development" and called for Israel to join Iraq within the "IAEA safeguards regime" of the <a href="Nuclear_Non-Proliferation_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty">Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-UN_SRES4871981-71">[71]</a> The council also stated its consideration that Iraq was "entitled to appropriate redress for the destruction it has suffered." The United States voted for the resolution and suspended the delivery of four F-16 aircraft to Israel, but blocked punitive action by the UN.<a href="#cite_note-seliktar-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> The suspension on the delivery of the aircraft was lifted two months later.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a>

The <a href="UN_General_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly">UN General Assembly</a> followed the Security Council with Resolution No. 36/27 on 13 November 1981, expressing deep alarm and condemning Israel over the "premeditated and unprecedented act of aggression," and demanding that Israel pay prompt and adequate compensation for the damage and loss of life it had caused.<a href="#cite_note-United_Nations,_p._283-76">[76]</a> The resolution also solemnly warned Israel to refrain from taking such measures in the future.<a href="#cite_note-United_Nations,_p._283-76">[76]</a>

Debate prior to passage of the UN resolution reflected member states' differing positions on issues such as nuclear proliferation in the region and the appropriateness and justifiability of Israel's actions. The Iraqi representative stated that "the motives behind the Israeli attack were to cover up <a href="Israel's_possession_of_nuclear_weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Israel's possession of nuclear weapons">Israel's possession of nuclear weapons</a> and, more importantly, the determination not to allow the Arab nation to acquire scientific or technical knowledge."<a href="#cite_note-un277-34">[34]</a> Syria requested condemnation not only of Israel for terrorism against Arab peoples, but also of the United States, "which continue[s] to provide Israel with instruments of destruction as part of its strategic alliance."<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a>

The representative of France stated that the sole purpose of the reactor was scientific research.<a href="#cite_note-un277-34">[34]</a> Agreements between France and Iraq excluded military use.<a href="#cite_note-un277-34">[34]</a> The United Kingdom said it did not believe Iraq had the capacity to manufacture fissionable materials for nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-un277-34">[34]</a> The IAEA Director-General confirmed that inspections of the nuclear research reactors near Baghdad revealed no non-compliance with the safeguards agreement.<a href="#cite_note-un277-34">[34]</a>

The IAEA's <a href="Board_of_Governors_of_the_International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="Board of Governors of the International Atomic Energy Agency">Board of Governors</a> convened on 9–12 June and condemned Israel's action.<a href="#cite_note-louka-78">[78]</a> The Board further asked that the prospect of suspending Israel's privileges and rights of membership be considered at the next General Conference held by the organization.<a href="#cite_note-louka-78">[78]</a> On 26 September 1981, the IAEA Conference condemned the attack and voted to suspend all technical assistance to Israel.<a href="#cite_note-louka-78">[78]</a> A draft resolution was introduced to expel Israel from the IAEA, but the proposition was defeated.<a href="#cite_note-louka-78">[78]</a> The United States argued that the attack was not a violation of the IAEA Statute and that punitive action against Israel would do great harm to the IAEA and the non-proliferation regime.<a href="#cite_note-louka-78">[78]</a>

The attack was strongly criticized around the world, including in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-seliktar-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Privately, <a href="Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">President Reagan</a> wrote in his journal on the day of the attack, "I swear I believe Armageddon is near," adding of Begin's decision, "He should have told us & the French, we could have done something to remove the threat."<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <a href="Jonathan_Steele_(journalist)" title="Jonathan Steele (journalist)">Jonathan Steele</a>, writing in <a href="The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>, described the reaction:

<blockquote>The world was outraged by Israel's raid on 7 June 1981. "Armed attack in such circumstances cannot be justified. It represents a grave breach of international law," <a href="Margaret_Thatcher" title="Margaret Thatcher">Margaret Thatcher</a> thundered. <a href="Jeane_Kirkpatrick" title="Jeane Kirkpatrick">Jeane Kirkpatrick</a>, the U.S. ambassador to the UN and as stern a lecturer as Britain's then prime minister, described it as "shocking" and compared it to the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan. American newspapers were as fulsome. "Israel's sneak attack ... was an act of inexcusable and short-sighted aggression," said the New York Times. The Los Angeles Times called it "<a href="State-sponsored_terrorism" title="State-sponsored terrorism">state-sponsored terrorism</a>".<a href="#cite_note-steele-14">[14]</a></blockquote>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aftermath">Aftermath</h3></div>

Ten Iraqi soldiers and one French civilian were killed in the attack.<a href="#cite_note-polakow-12">[12]</a> The civilian killed was engineer Damien Chaussepied, variously described as 24 or 25 years old, who was an employee of <a href="Air_Liquide" title="Air Liquide">Air Liquide</a> and the French governmental agency <a href="French_Alternative_Energies_and_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="French Alternative Energies and Atomic Energy Commission">CEA</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-newsweek-83">[83]</a> In 1981, Israel agreed to pay restitution to Chaussepied's family.<a href="#cite_note-newsweek-83">[83]</a>

Iraq said it would rebuild the facility and France agreed, in principle, to aid in the reconstruction.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Because of a mix of factors, including the <a href="Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a>, international pressure and Iraqi payment problems, negotiations broke down in 1984 and France withdrew from the project.<a href="#cite_note-cordes606-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The Osirak facility remained in its damaged state until the 1991 <a href="Persian_Gulf_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Gulf War">Persian Gulf War</a>, when it was completely destroyed by subsequent coalition air strikes by the <a href="United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a>, one of them being the <a href="Package_Q_Strike" title="Package Q Strike">Package Q Strike</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> During the war, 100 out of 120 members of the <a href="Knesset" title="Knesset">Knesset</a> signed a letter of appreciation to Menachem Begin, thanking him for ordering the attack on Osirak.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> In July 1991, Begin, in a rare interview granted to <a href="Israeli_Army_Radio" title="Israeli Army Radio">Israeli Army Radio</a>, claimed that the Gulf War, and especially the Iraqi <a href="Scud" class="mw-redirect" title="Scud">Scud</a> missile attacks on Israel during that war, vindicated his decision to bomb the reactor.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a>

In response to their failures to prevent the Osirak attack (and the earlier H-3 attack), <a href="Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> ordered the <a href="Capital_punishment" title="Capital punishment">execution</a> of Colonel Fakhri Hussein Jaber, the head of Iraq's Western Air Defense Zone, and all officers under his command above the rank of <a href="Major_(rank)" title="Major (rank)">major</a>. In addition, 23 other Iraqi pilots and officers were imprisoned.<a href="#cite_note-Cooper-56">[56]</a>

The attack took place approximately three weeks before the <a href="1981_Israeli_legislative_election" title="1981 Israeli legislative election">Israeli legislative election of 1981</a>. Opposition leader <a href="Shimon_Peres" title="Shimon Peres">Shimon Peres</a> criticized the operation as a political ploy, which did not go over well with the electorate.<a href="#cite_note-perryIQP-13">[13]</a> Dan Perry writes that "the Osirak bombing—and Peres's poor political judgement in criticizing it—were crucial in turning the tide of what initially had seemed to be a hopeless election campaign for <a href="Likud" title="Likud">Likud</a>".<a href="#cite_note-perryIQP-13">[13]</a> Begin responded to Peres's accusation at a Likud rally: "Jews, you have known me for forty years, since I lived in the Hassidoff neighborhood of Petah Tikva to fight for the Jewish people (a reference to Begin's incognito days in the <a href="Irgun" title="Irgun">Irgun</a>). Would I send Jewish boys to risk death—or captivity worse than death, because those barbarians would have tortured our boys horribly—for elections?" On 30 June, Likud was reelected over Peres's <a href="Alignment_(Israel)" title="Alignment (Israel)">Alignment</a> party, winning by just one seat in the Knesset.<a href="#cite_note-perryIQP-13">[13]</a>

The US government had been caught completely off-guard by the attack. A former senior official in US intelligence told Israeli journalist <a href="Ronen_Bergman" title="Ronen Bergman">Ronen Bergman</a> that the failure to detect preparations for the attack was perceived as a grave intelligence failure within the <a href="United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">US intelligence community</a>, and that it led to a special team within US intelligence being set up to investigate the failure to detect preparations for an operation of this magnitude within the Israeli Air Force, military intelligence, the Mossad, and political system.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a>

In 2009, the Prime Minister of Iraq <a href="Nouri_al-Maliki" title="Nouri al-Maliki">Nouri al-Maliki</a> demanded that Israel compensate Iraq for the destruction of the reactor.<a href="#cite_note-alalam-90">[90]</a> An Iraqi official asserted that Iraq's right to redress is supported by <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_487" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 487">Resolution 487</a> adopted by the <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> in response to the attack.<a href="#cite_note-alalam-90">[90]</a> In early 2010, <a href="The_Siasat_Daily" title="The Siasat Daily">The Siasat Daily</a>, citing an unnamed Iraqi parliament member, reported that Iraqi officials had received word from the <a href="UN_Secretariat" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Secretariat">UN Secretariat</a> that the Iraqi government was entitled to seek compensation from Israel for damage caused by the attack.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Assessment">Assessment</h2></div>

Israel claims that the attack impeded Iraq's nuclear ambitions by at least ten years.<a href="#cite_note-council-18">[18]</a> In an interview in 2005, <a href="Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> expressed support for the attack: "everybody talks about what the Israelis did at Osiraq, in 1981, which, I think, in retrospect, was a really good thing. You know, it kept Saddam from developing nuclear power."<a href="#cite_note-Davos2005-92">[92]</a> <a href="Louis_Ren%C3%A9_Beres" title="Louis René Beres">Louis René Beres</a> wrote in 1995 that "[h]ad it not been for the brilliant raid at Osiraq, Saddam's forces might have been equipped with atomic warheads in 1991."<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a>

In 2010, squad leader Ze'ev Raz said of the operation: "There was no doubt in the mind of the decision makers that we couldn't take a chance. We knew that the Iraqis could do exactly what we did in <a href="Negev_Nuclear_Research_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Negev Nuclear Research Center">Dimona</a>."<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a>

As early as the autumn of 1981, <a href="Kenneth_Waltz" title="Kenneth Waltz">Kenneth Waltz</a> discussed the fallout from the strike:

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote">In striking Iraq, Israel showed that a preventive strike can be made, something that was not in doubt. Israel's act and its consequences however, make clear that the likelihood of useful accomplishment is low. Israel's strike increased the determination of Arabs to produce nuclear weapons. Arab states that may attempt to do so will now be all the more secretive and circumspect. Israel's strike, far from foreclosing Iraq's nuclear future, gained her the support of some other Arab states in pursuing it. And despite Prime Minister Begin's vow to strike as often as need be, the risks in doing so would rise with each occasion.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a></blockquote>

<a href="Charles_R._H._Tripp" title="Charles R. H. Tripp">Charles R. H. Tripp</a>, in an interview for the 25th anniversary of the attack, described the bombing of Osirak as a variation of Israeli military doctrine beginning with the premiership of <a href="David_Ben-Gurion" title="David Ben-Gurion">David Ben-Gurion</a>, "advocating devastating <a href="Preemptive_war" title="Preemptive war">pre-emptive</a> strikes on Arab enemies."<a href="#cite_note-bbc2-96">[96]</a> Tripp asserted, "the Osirak attack is an illegal way to behave—Resolution 487 established that—but it is an understandable way to behave if you are the Israeli military-security establishment."<a href="#cite_note-bbc2-96">[96]</a>

Following the <a href="2003_invasion_of_Iraq" title="2003 invasion of Iraq">U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003</a>, American forces captured a number of documents detailing conversations that Saddam Hussein had with his inner sanctum.<a href="#cite_note-hussein-97">[97]</a> In a 1982 conversation Hussein stated that, "Once Iraq walks out victorious [over Iran], there will not be any Israel." Of Israel's anti-Iraqi endeavors, Saddam noted, "Technically, they [the Israelis] are right in all of their attempts to harm Iraq."<a href="#cite_note-hussein-97">[97]</a>

Tom Moriarty, a military intelligence analyst for the <a href="United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">United States Air Force</a>, wrote in 2004 that Israel had "gambled that the strike would be within Iraq's threshold of tolerance." Moriarty argues that Iraq, already in the midst of a war with Iran, would not start a war with Israel at the same time and that its "threshold of tolerance was higher than normal."<a href="#cite_note-moriarty-98">[98]</a>

<a href="Joseph_Cirincione" title="Joseph Cirincione">Joseph Cirincione</a>, then director of non-proliferation at the <a href="Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace" title="Carnegie Endowment for International Peace">Carnegie Endowment for International Peace</a>, wrote in 2006:

<blockquote class="templatequote">Israel had pulled off a remarkable military raid, striking targets with great precision over long distances. But the bombing set back Israel more than Iraq. It further harmed Israel's international reputation, later worsened by the ill-fated 1982 invasion of Lebanon, while making Iraq appear a victim of Israeli aggression.<a href="#cite_note-options-62">[62]</a></blockquote>

By contrast, Iraqi researchers have stated that the <a href="Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction">Iraqi nuclear program</a> simply went underground, diversified, and expanded.<a href="#cite_note-salama-99">[99]</a> <a href="Khidir_Hamza" title="Khidir Hamza">Khidir Hamza</a>, an Iraqi nuclear scientist, made the following statement in an interview on <a href="CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a>'s <a href="Crossfire_(U.S._TV_program)" class="mw-redirect" title="Crossfire (U.S. TV program)">Crossfire</a> in 2003:

<blockquote class="templatequote">Israel—actually, what Israel [did] is that it got out the immediate danger out of the way. But it created a much larger danger in the longer range. What happened is that Saddam ordered us—we were 400 ... scientists and technologists running the program. And when they bombed that reactor out, we had also invested $400 million. And the French reactor and the associated plans were from Italy. When they bombed it out we became 7,000 with a $10 billion investment for a secret, much larger underground program to make bomb material by enriching uranium. We dropped the reactor out totally, which was the plutonium for making nuclear weapons, and went directly into enriching uranium. ... They [Israel] estimated we'd make 7 kg [15 lb] of plutonium a year, which is enough for one bomb. And they get scared and bombed it out. Actually it was much less than this, and it would have taken a much longer time. But the program we built later in secret would make six bombs a year.<a href="#cite_note-salama-99">[99]</a></blockquote>

Similarly, the Iraqi nuclear scientist Imad Khadduri wrote in 2003 that the bombing of Osirak convinced the Iraqi leadership to initiate a full-fledged nuclear weapons program.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> United States Secretary of Defense <a href="William_J._Perry" title="William J. Perry">William Perry</a> stated in 1997 that Iraq refocused its nuclear weapons effort on producing highly enriched uranium after the raid.<a href="#cite_note-perryPTR-101">[101]</a> Its interest in acquiring plutonium as fissile material for weapons continued, but at a lower priority.<a href="#cite_note-perryPTR-101">[101]</a>

In the Duelfer Report, released by the <a href="Iraq_Survey_Group" title="Iraq Survey Group">Iraq Survey Group</a> in 2004, it is stated that the Iraqi nuclear program "expanded considerably" with the purchase of the French reactor in 1976, and that "Israel's bombing of Iraq's Osirak nuclear reactor spurred Saddam to build up Iraq's military to confront Israel in the early 1980s."<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a>

<a href="Bob_Woodward" title="Bob Woodward">Bob Woodward</a>, in the book State of Denial, writes:

<blockquote class="templatequote">Israeli intelligence were convinced that their strike in 1981 on the Osirak nuclear reactor about 10 miles (16 km) outside Baghdad had ended Saddam's program. Instead [it initiated] covert funding for a nuclear program code-named 'PC3' involving 5,000 people testing and building ingredients for a nuclear bomb.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a></blockquote>

<a href="Richard_K._Betts" title="Richard K. Betts">Richard K. Betts</a> wrote that "there is no evidence that Israel's destruction of Osirak delayed Iraq's nuclear weapons program. The attack may actually have accelerated it."<a href="#cite_note-Betts2006-104">[104]</a> <a href="Dan_Reiter" title="Dan Reiter">Dan Reiter</a> has repeatedly said<a href="#cite_note-Reiter2004-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reiter2005-106">[106]</a> that the attack was a dangerous failure: the bombed reactor had nothing to do with weapons research, while "the attack may have actually increased Saddam's commitment to acquiring weapons."<a href="#cite_note-Reiter2005-106">[106]</a> In 2011, and basing herself on new Iraqi sources, Malfrid Braut-Hegghammer said that the attack: "...triggered a covert nuclear weapons program that did not previously exist ... a decade later Iraq stood on the threshold of a nuclear weapons capability. This case suggests that preventive attacks can increase the long-term proliferation risk posed by the targeted state."<a href="#cite_note-BHegg2011-107">[107]</a> Elsewhere, she wrote:

<blockquote class="templatequote">The destruction of the Osiraq reactor did not delay the development of a nuclear weapons option because it [the reactor] was never intended to be part of such an effort. The French-supplied facility was subject to rigorous safeguards and designed to ensure that Iraq would not be able to produce weapons-grade plutonium. An examination of the reactor by Harvard physicist Richard Wilson after the attack concluded that the facility was not suited for production of weapons-grade plutonium. As a result, the attack did not reduce the risk that Iraq would develop nuclear weapons. On the contrary, it brought about a far more determined and focused effort to acquire nuclear weapons.<a href="#cite_note-BHegg_HuffPo-108">[108]</a></blockquote>

Following <a href="Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Desert Storm</a>, <a href="Dick_Cheney" title="Dick Cheney">Dick Cheney</a>, then the United States Secretary of Defense, thanked the Israeli mission commander for the "outstanding job he did on the Iraqi nuclear program in 1981". While many scholars debate the value of the bombing, Iraq did not possess nuclear weapons at the outbreak of the Gulf War, and, according to Cheney, the bombing made Desert Storm easier.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a>

The second use of the <a href="Begin_Doctrine" title="Begin Doctrine">Begin Doctrine</a> was <a href="Operation_Outside_the_Box" title="Operation Outside the Box">Operation Orchard</a> in 2007, an Israeli airstrike on a purported <a href="Syrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian">Syrian</a> nuclear target. Like in Operation Opera, the same types of aircraft were involved, although their roles were reversed with the <a href="F-15E_Strike_Eagle" class="mw-redirect" title="F-15E Strike Eagle">F-15Is</a> carrying bombs while the <a href="F-16I" class="mw-redirect" title="F-16I">F-16Is</a> provided escort.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a>

<ul><li><a href="France%E2%80%93Iraq_relations" title="France–Iraq relations">France–Iraq relations</a></li>

<li><a href="French_support_for_Iraq_during_the_Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="French support for Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War">French support for Iraq during the Iran–Iraq War</a></li>

<li><a href="Iraq%E2%80%93Israel_relations" title="Iraq–Israel relations">Iraq–Israel relations</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_weapons_and_Israel" title="Nuclear weapons and Israel">Nuclear weapons and Israel</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Entebbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Entebbe">Operation Entebbe</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Gift" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Gift">Operation Gift</a></li>

<li><a href="Operation_Orchard" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Orchard">Operation Orchard</a> – a 2007 Israeli airstrike on a purported <a href="Syrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian">Syrian</a> nuclear target</li>

<li><a href="Operation_Wooden_Leg" title="Operation Wooden Leg">Operation Wooden Leg</a> – the Israeli Air Force's raid on <a href="Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li>

<li><a href="Stuxnet" title="Stuxnet">Stuxnet</a></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> Perlmutter, p. 172.

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<li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Amos Perlmutter, Michael I. Handel, Uri Bar-Joseph. Two Minutes over Baghdad. Routledge (2nd ed.), 2008. p. 120.

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<li id="cite_note-perl40-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-perl40_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-perl40_20-1">b</a> Perlmutter, p. 40.

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<li id="cite_note-perl4142-21">^ <a href="#cite_ref-perl4142_21-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-perl4142_21-1">b</a> Perlmutter, pp. 41–42.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

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<li>Bennett Ramberg, Nuclear Power Plants as Weapons for the Enemy: An Unrecognized Military Peril, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-520-04969-7</bdi></li>

<li>Sasha Polakow-Suransky, The Unspoken Alliance: Israel's Secret Relationship with Apartheid South Africa, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-375-42546-2</bdi></li>

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<li>H. H. A. Cooper, Terrorism and espionage in the Middle East: deception, displacement and denial, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7734-5866-6</bdi></li>

<li>Barry Leonard, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dianepublishing.net/Technology_Transfer_to_the_Middle_East_p/1428923837.htm">Technology Transfer to the Middle East</a>,</li>

<li>Sharad S. Chauhan, War on Iraq, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-81-7648-478-7</bdi></li>

<li><a href="Bob_Woodward" title="Bob Woodward">Bob Woodward</a>, <a href="State_of_Denial%3A_Bush_at_War%2C_Part_III" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Denial: Bush at War, Part III">State of Denial: Bush at War, Part III</a>, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7432-7223-0</bdi></li>

<li>Imad Khadduri, Iraq's Nuclear Mirage, Memoirs and Delusions, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-9733790-0-6</bdi></li>

<li>Karl P. Mueller, Striking First: Preemptive and Preventive Attack in U.S. National Security Policy, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8330-3881-4</bdi></li>

<li>Shai Feldman, Nuclear Weapons and Arms Control in the Middle East, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-262-56108-2</bdi></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFAvner2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="Yehuda_Avner" title="Yehuda Avner">Avner, Yehuda</a> (2010). <a href="The_Prime_Ministers" title="The Prime Ministers">The Prime Ministers: An Intimate Narrative of Israeli Leadership</a>. <a href="Toby_Press" title="Toby Press">Toby Press</a>. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-59264-278-6</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/758724969">758724969</a>.</cite></li>

<li>Rodger Claire, Raid on the Sun: Inside Israel's Secret Campaign that Denied Saddam the Bomb, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-7679-1400-0</bdi></li>

<li>Steven E. Lobell (2020) "<a href="https://doi.org/10.1080/01402390.2020.1837116" class="extiw external" title="doi:10.1080/01402390.2020.1837116">Why Israel launched a preventive military strike on Iraq’s nuclear weapons program (1981): The fungibility of power resources</a>". Journal of Strategic Studies</li>

<li>Timothy L. H. McCormack, Self-Defense in International Law: The Israeli Raid on the Iraqi Nuclear Reactor, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-312-16279-5</bdi></li>

<li>Dan McKinnon (1987), Bullseye One Reactor, <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-941437-07-3</bdi></li>

<li>Dan McKinnon (1987), Bullseye Iraq <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-425-11259-5</bdi></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Operation_Opera" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Operation Opera">Operation Opera</a>.</div></div>

</div>

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<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LbMeaKTjGjE">HUD video recording from two F-16s, including hit of two bombs at 1:07</a> on <a href="YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070607210648/http://www.americanheritage.com/places/articles/web/20060607-israel-iraq-nuclear-weapons-baghdad-saddam-hussein-alexander-haig-menachem-begin-osirak-preemptive-strike.shtml">Attack on Iraq’s Nuke Plant</a>, <a href="American_Heritage_(magazine)" title="American Heritage (magazine)">American Heritage</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fas.org/nuke/guide/iraq/facility/osiraq.htm">Osiraq / Tammuz I</a>, <a href="Federation_of_American_Scientists" title="Federation of American Scientists">Federation of American Scientists</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060214200101/http://anthonydamato.law.northwestern.edu/Adobefiles/A961-Isr.pdf">Israel's Air Strike Against The Osiraq Reactor: A Retrospective</a>, Temple International and Comparative Law Journal</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/4774733.stm">Osirak: Over the reactor</a>, <a href="BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>, 5 June 2006 (interview with pilots involved)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/5020778.stm">Factfile: How Osirak was bombed</a>, BBC News</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.archives.mod.gov.il/sites/English/Exhibitions/Pages/Operation-Opera.aspx">Operation Opera: the destruction of the Iraqi nuclear Reactor</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201027161235/http://www.archives.mod.gov.il/sites/English/Exhibitions/Pages/Operation-Opera.aspx">Archived</a> 27 October 2020 at the <a href="Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>) – Exhibition in the IDF & Defense establishment archives</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/jss/vol3/iss4/8">Operation Opera: An Ambiguous Success</a>, Journal of Strategic Studies</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/TheIsraeliAggressionAgainstThePeacefulNuclearInstallationsInIraq">The Israeli aggression against the peaceful nuclear installations in Iraq : statement made by Dr. Sa'adoun Hammadi, Minister for Foreign Affairs of Iraq, before the Security Council, 12 June 1981</a></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arab–Israeli_conflict27" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Arab–Israeli_conflict27" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="CountriesAuthoritiesOrganizations228" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Countries</li><li>Authorities</li><li>Organizations</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Primary countries and authorities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="All-Palestine_Government" title="All-Palestine Government">All-Palestine</a></li>

<li><a href="Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Kingdom of Egypt">Egyptian Kingdom</a> and <a href="Egypt" title="Egypt">Republic</a></li>

<li><a href="Gaza_Strip" title="Gaza Strip">Hamas Gaza</a></li>

<li><a href="Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Iraqi Kingdom</a> and <a href="Ba'athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist Iraq</a></li>

<li><a href="Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></li>

<li><a href="Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a></li>

<li><a href="Palestinian_Authority" title="Palestinian Authority">Palestinian Authority</a></li>

<li><a href="Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li>

<li><a href="Second_Syrian_Republic" title="Second Syrian Republic">Syrian Republic</a> and <a href="Syria" title="Syria">Ba'athist Syria</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Active</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<li><a href="Al-Aqsa_Martyrs'_Brigades" title="Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades">al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades</a></li>

<li><a href="Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a></li>

<li><a href="Arab_Liberation_Front" title="Arab Liberation Front">Arab Liberation Front</a></li>

<li><a href="Army_of_Islam_(Gaza)" title="Army of Islam (Gaza)">Army of Islam</a></li>

<li><a href="Fatah" title="Fatah">Fatah</a></li>

<li><a href="Guardians_of_the_Cedars" title="Guardians of the Cedars">Guardians of the Cedars</a></li>

<li><a href="Hamas" title="Hamas">Hamas</a></li>

<li><a href="Hezbollah" title="Hezbollah">Hezbollah</a></li>

<li><a href="Kataeb_Party" title="Kataeb Party">Kataeb</a></li>

<li><a href="Lebanese_Forces" title="Lebanese Forces">Lebanese Forces</a></li>

<li><a href="Al-Mourabitoun" title="Al-Mourabitoun">al-Mourabitoun</a></li>

<li><a href="Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a></li>

<li><a href="Palestinian_Popular_Struggle_Front" title="Palestinian Popular Struggle Front">Palestinian Popular Struggle Front</a></li>

<li><a href="Popular_Resistance_Committees" title="Popular Resistance Committees">Popular Resistance Committees</a></li>

<li><a href="Syrian_Social_Nationalist_Party" title="Syrian Social Nationalist Party">Syrian Social Nationalist Party</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Former</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Abu_Nidal_Organization" title="Abu Nidal Organization">Abu Nidal Organization</a></li>

<li><a href="Arab_Higher_Committee" title="Arab Higher Committee">Arab Higher Committee</a></li>

<li><a href="Arab_Liberation_Army" title="Arab Liberation Army">Arab Liberation Army</a></li>

<li><a href="Black_September_Organization" title="Black September Organization">Black September Organization</a></li>

<li><a href="Haganah" title="Haganah">Haganah</a></li>

<li><a href="Irgun" title="Irgun">Irgun</a></li>

<li><a href="Japanese_Red_Army" title="Japanese Red Army">Japanese Red Army</a></li>

<li><a href="Palmach" title="Palmach">Palmach</a></li>

<li><a href="Revolutionary_Cells_(German_group)" title="Revolutionary Cells (German group)">Revolutionary Cells</a></li>

<li><a href="South_Lebanon_Army" title="South Lebanon Army">South Lebanon Army</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="France" title="France">France</a></li>

<li><a href="Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li>

<li><a href="Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a></li>

<li><a href="Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a></li>

<li><a href="North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Arab_Emirates" title="United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transnational</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Former states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a></li>

<li><a href="United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Armed_engagements104" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="History_of_the_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="History of the Arab–Israeli conflict">Armed engagements</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1947–1959</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="1948_Palestine_war" title="1948 Palestine war">1948 Palestine war</a></li>

<li><a href="1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">Arab–Israeli War</a> (1948–1949)</li>

<li><a href="Palestinian_Fedayeen_insurgency" title="Palestinian Fedayeen insurgency">Palestinian Fedayeen insurgency</a> (1949–1956)</li>

<li><a href="Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a> (1956)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1960–1979</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Samu_incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Samu incident">Samu incident</a> (1966)</li>

<li><a href="War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a> (1967–1970)</li>

<li><a href="Battle_of_Karameh" title="Battle of Karameh">Battle of Karameh</a> (1968)</li>

<li><a href="Palestinian_insurgency_in_South_Lebanon" title="Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon">Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon</a> (1968–1982)</li>

<li><a href="Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a> (1973)</li>

<li><a href="Sabena_Flight_571" title="Sabena Flight 571">Sabena Flight 571</a> (1972)</li>

<li><a href="Lod_Airport_massacre" title="Lod Airport massacre">Lod Airport massacre</a> (1972)</li>

<li><a href="Munich_massacre" title="Munich massacre">Munich massacre</a> (1972)</li>

<li><a href="Mossad_assassinations_following_the_Munich_massacre" title="Mossad assassinations following the Munich massacre">Bayonet</a> (1972–1979)</li>

<li><a href="Libyan_Arab_Airlines_Flight_114" title="Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114">Libyan Arab Airlines Flight 114</a> (1973)</li>

<li><a href="Ma'alot_massacre" title="Ma'alot massacre">Ma'alot massacre</a> (1974)</li>

<li><a href="Savoy_Hotel_attack" title="Savoy Hotel attack">Savoy Hotel attack</a> (1975)</li>

<li><a href="Entebbe_raid" title="Entebbe raid">Entebbe</a> (1976)</li>

<li><a href="Coastal_Road_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal Road massacre">Coastal Road massacre</a> (1978)</li>

<li><a href="1978_South_Lebanon_conflict" title="1978 South Lebanon conflict">Litani</a> (1978)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1980–1999</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Misgav_Am_hostage_crisis" title="Misgav Am hostage crisis">Misgav Am hostage crisis</a> (1980)</li>

<li><a href="1982_Lebanon_War" title="1982 Lebanon War">Lebanon War</a> (1982)</li>

<li><a href="Bus_300_affair" title="Bus 300 affair">Bus 300 affair</a> (1984)</li>

<li><a href="South_Lebanon_conflict_(1985%E2%80%932000)" title="South Lebanon conflict (1985–2000)">South Lebanon conflict</a> (1985)</li>

<li><a href="Operation_Wooden_Leg" title="Operation Wooden Leg">Wooden Leg</a> (1985)</li>

<li><a href="First_Intifada" title="First Intifada">First Intifada</a> (1987–1993)</li>

<li><a href="Mothers'_Bus_attack" class="mw-redirect" title="Mothers' Bus attack">Mothers' Bus attack</a> (1988)</li>

<li><a href="Khalil_al-Wazir#Assassination" title="Khalil al-Wazir">Tunis raid</a> (1988)</li>

<li><a href="1991_Iraqi_missile_attacks_against_Israel" title="1991 Iraqi missile attacks against Israel">Iraqi missile attacks against Israel</a> (1991)</li>

<li><a href="Operation_Bramble_Bush" title="Operation Bramble Bush">Bramble Bush</a> (1992)</li>

<li><a href="Palestinian_suicide_attacks" title="Palestinian suicide attacks">Palestinian suicide attacks</a> (1993–2008; <a href="List_of_Palestinian_suicide_attacks" title="List of Palestinian suicide attacks">list</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Operation_Accountability" title="Operation Accountability">Accountability</a> (1993)</li>

<li><a href="Operation_Grapes_of_Wrath" title="Operation Grapes of Wrath">Grapes of Wrath</a> (1996)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2000–2021</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Second_Intifada" title="Second Intifada">Second Intifada</a> (2000–2005)</li>

<li><a href="Palestinian_rocket_attacks_on_Israel" title="Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel">Palestinian rocket attacks on Israel</a> (2001–)</li>

<li><a href="Ain_es_Saheb_airstrike" title="Ain es Saheb airstrike">Ain es Saheb airstrike</a> (2003)</li>

<li><a href="Operation_Bringing_Home_the_Goods" title="Operation Bringing Home the Goods">Bringing Home the Goods</a> (2006)</li>

<li><a href="2006_Gaza%E2%80%93Israel_conflict" title="2006 Gaza–Israel conflict">Summer Rains</a> (2006)</li>

<li><a href="2006_Israeli_operation_in_Beit_Hanoun" title="2006 Israeli operation in Beit Hanoun">Autumn Clouds</a> (2006)</li>

<li><a href="2006_Lebanon_War" title="2006 Lebanon War">Lebanon War</a> (2006)</li>

<li><a href="Gaza%E2%80%93Israel_conflict" title="Gaza–Israel conflict">Gaza–Israel conflict</a> (2006–)

<ul><li><a href="Operation_Hot_Winter" title="Operation Hot Winter">Hot Winter</a> (2007–2008)</li>

<li><a href="2010_Palestinian_militancy_campaign" title="2010 Palestinian militancy campaign">Palestinian militancy campaign</a> (2010)</li>

<li><a href="2011_southern_Israel_cross-border_attacks" title="2011 southern Israel cross-border attacks">Southern Israel cross-border attacks</a> (2011)</li>

<li><a href="March_2012_Gaza%E2%80%93Israel_clashes" title="March 2012 Gaza–Israel clashes">Returning Echo</a> (2012)</li>

<li><a href="2012_Israeli_operation_in_the_Gaza_Strip" class="mw-redirect" title="2012 Israeli operation in the Gaza Strip">Pillar of Defense</a> (2012)</li>

<li><a href="2015%E2%80%932016_wave_of_violence_in_the_Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="2015–2016 wave of violence in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Wave of violence</a> (2015–2016)</li>

<li><a href="2018%E2%80%932019_Gaza_border_protests" title="2018–2019 Gaza border protests">Gaza border protests</a> (2018)</li>

<li><a href="November_2018_Gaza%E2%80%93Israel_clashes" title="November 2018 Gaza–Israel clashes">Gaza–Israel clashes</a> (2018)</li>

<li><a href="May_2019_Gaza%E2%80%93Israel_clashes" title="May 2019 Gaza–Israel clashes">Gaza–Israel clashes</a> (2019)</li>

<li><a href="November_2019_Gaza%E2%80%93Israel_clashes" title="November 2019 Gaza–Israel clashes">Black Belt</a> (2019)</li>

<li><a href="2021_Israel%E2%80%93Palestine_crisis" title="2021 Israel–Palestine crisis">Israel–Palestine crisis</a> (2021)</li>

<li><a href="2022_Gaza%E2%80%93Israel_clashes" title="2022 Gaza–Israel clashes">Breaking Dawn</a> (2022)</li>

<li><a href="May_2023_Gaza%E2%80%93Israel_clashes" title="May 2023 Gaza–Israel clashes">Shield and Arrow</a> (2023)</li>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diplomacy_and_peace_proposals145" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Diplomacy and <a href="Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_normalization" title="Arab–Israeli normalization">peace proposals</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>1914 <a href="Damascus_Protocol" title="Damascus Protocol">Damascus Protocol</a></li>

<li>1915 <a href="McMahon%E2%80%93Hussein_Correspondence" class="mw-redirect" title="McMahon–Hussein Correspondence">McMahon–Hussein Correspondence</a></li>

<li>1916 <a href="Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement" title="Sykes–Picot Agreement">Sykes–Picot Agreement</a></li>

<li>1917 <a href="Balfour_Declaration" title="Balfour Declaration">Balfour Declaration</a></li>

<li>1918 <a href="Declaration_to_the_Seven" title="Declaration to the Seven">Declaration to the Seven</a> / <a href="Anglo-French_Declaration" title="Anglo-French Declaration">Anglo-French Declaration</a></li>

<li>1919 <a href="Faisal%E2%80%93Weizmann_agreement" title="Faisal–Weizmann agreement">Faisal–Weizmann agreement</a></li>

<li>1920 <a href="San_Remo_conference" title="San Remo conference">San Remo conference</a></li>

<li>1922 <a href="Churchill_White_Paper" title="Churchill White Paper">Churchill White Paper</a></li>

<li>1937 <a href="Peel_Commission" title="Peel Commission">Peel Commission</a></li>

<li>1939 <a href="White_Paper_of_1939" title="White Paper of 1939">White Paper</a></li>

<li>1939 <a href="London_Conference_of_1939" title="London Conference of 1939">London Conference</a></li>

<li>1946 <a href="Morrison%E2%80%93Grady_Plan" title="Morrison–Grady Plan">Morrison–Grady Plan</a></li>

<li>1947 <a href="Bevin_Plan" title="Bevin Plan">Bevin Plan</a></li>

<li>1946–47 <a href="London_Conference_of_1946%E2%80%931947" title="London Conference of 1946–1947">London Conference</a></li>

<li>1947 <a href="United_Nations_Partition_Plan_for_Palestine" title="United Nations Partition Plan for Palestine">UN Partition Plan</a></li>

<li>1948 <a href="American_trusteeship_proposal_for_Palestine" title="American trusteeship proposal for Palestine">American trusteeship proposal</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1948–1983</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>1948 <a href="United_Nations_General_Assembly_Resolution_194" title="United Nations General Assembly Resolution 194">UN General Assembly (UNGA) Resolution 194</a></li>

<li>1949 <a href="1949_Armistice_Agreements" title="1949 Armistice Agreements">Armistice agreements</a> / <a href="Lausanne_Conference_of_1949" title="Lausanne Conference of 1949">Lausanne Conference</a></li>

<li>1950 <a href="Tripartite_Declaration_of_1950" title="Tripartite Declaration of 1950">Tripartite Declaration</a></li>

<li>1967 <a href="Khartoum_Resolution" title="Khartoum Resolution">Khartoum Resolution</a> / <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_242" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 242">UN Security Council (UNSC) Resolution 242</a></li>

<li>1971 <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_298" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 298">UNSC Resolution 298</a></li>

<li>1973 <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_338" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 338">UNSC Resolution 338</a> / <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_339" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 339">UNSC Resolution 339</a></li>

<li>1974 <a href="Agreement_on_Disengagement_between_Israel_and_Syria" title="Agreement on Disengagement between Israel and Syria">Israel–Syria disengagement agreement</a> / <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_350" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 350">UNSC Resolution 350</a></li>

<li>1978 <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_425" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 425">UNSC Resolution 425</a> / <a href="Camp_David_Accords" title="Camp David Accords">Camp David Accords</a></li>

<li>1979 <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_446" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 446">UNSC Resolution 446</a> / <a href="Egypt%E2%80%93Israel_peace_treaty" title="Egypt–Israel peace treaty">Egypt–Israel peace treaty</a> <a href="Palestinian_autonomy_talks" title="Palestinian autonomy talks">Palestinian autonomy talks</a> / <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_452" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 452">UNSC Resolution 452</a></li>

<li>1980 <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_478" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 478">UNSC Resolution 478</a></li>

<li>1981 <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_497" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 497">UNSC Resolution 497</a></li>

<li>1982 <a href="Reagan_peace_plan" title="Reagan peace plan">Reagan peace plan</a></li>

<li>1983 <a href="May_17_Agreement" title="May 17 Agreement">Israel–Lebanon agreement</a></li>

<li>1987 <a href="Peres%E2%80%93Hussein_London_Agreement" title="Peres–Hussein London Agreement">Peres–Hussein London Agreement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">1991–2016</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>1991 <a href="Madrid_Conference_of_1991" title="Madrid Conference of 1991">Madrid Conference</a></li>

<li>1993 <a href="Oslo_Accords" title="Oslo Accords">Oslo Accords</a>

<ul><li><a href="Israel%E2%80%93Palestine_Liberation_Organization_letters_of_recognition" title="Israel–Palestine Liberation Organization letters of recognition">Letters of recognition</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Middle_East_Peace_Facilitation_Act_of_1993" title="Middle East Peace Facilitation Act of 1993">Middle East Peace Facilitation Act</a></li>

<li>1994 <a href="Gaza%E2%80%93Jericho_Agreement" title="Gaza–Jericho Agreement">Gaza–Jericho Agreement</a> / <a href="Israel%E2%80%93Jordan_peace_treaty" title="Israel–Jordan peace treaty">Israel–Jordan peace treaty</a></li>

<li>1995 <a href="Beilin%E2%80%93Abu_Mazen_agreement" title="Beilin–Abu Mazen agreement">Beilin–Abu Mazen agreement</a></li>

<li>1998 <a href="Wye_River_Memorandum" title="Wye River Memorandum">Wye River Memorandum</a></li>

<li>1999 <a href="Sharm_El_Sheikh_Memorandum" title="Sharm El Sheikh Memorandum">Sharm El Sheikh Memorandum</a></li>

<li>2000 <a href="2000_Camp_David_Summit" title="2000 Camp David Summit">Camp David Summit</a> / <a href="The_Clinton_Parameters" title="The Clinton Parameters">Clinton Parameters</a></li>

<li>2000 <a href="Isratin" title="Isratin">Isratin</a></li>

<li>2001 <a href="Taba_Summit" title="Taba Summit">Taba Summit</a> / <a href="Mitchell_Report_(Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict)" title="Mitchell Report (Arab–Israeli conflict)">Mitchell Report</a></li>

<li>2002 <a href="2002_Arab_League_summit" title="2002 Arab League summit">Beirut Summit</a> and <a href="Arab_Peace_Initiative" title="Arab Peace Initiative">peace initiative</a> / <a href="Road_map_for_peace" title="Road map for peace">Road map</a> / <a href="Elon_Peace_Plan" title="Elon Peace Plan">Elon Plan</a></li>

<li>2003 <a href="Geneva_Initiative" title="Geneva Initiative">Geneva Initiative</a></li>

<li>2004 <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1559" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559">UNSC Resolution 1559</a> / <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1566" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1566">UNSC Resolution 1566</a></li>

<li>2005 <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1583" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1583">UNSC Resolution 1583</a> / <a href="Sharm_El_Sheikh_Summit_of_2005" title="Sharm El Sheikh Summit of 2005">Sharm El Sheikh Summit</a> / <a href="Israeli_disengagement_from_Gaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Israeli disengagement from Gaza">Israeli disengagement from Gaza</a> / <a href="Blockade_of_the_Gaza_Strip#2005_Agreement_on_Movement_and_Access" title="Blockade of the Gaza Strip">Agreement on Movement and Access</a> / <a href="Valley_of_Peace_initiative" title="Valley of Peace initiative">Valley of Peace initiative</a></li>

<li>2006 <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1850" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1850">UNSC Resolution 1850</a> / <a href="Quartet_Principles" title="Quartet Principles">Quartet Principles</a></li>

<li>2006 <a href="United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1701" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1701">UNSC Resolution 1701</a></li>

<li>2007 <a href="Annapolis_Conference" title="Annapolis Conference">Annapolis Conference</a></li>

<li>2010 <a href="2010%E2%80%932011_Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_peace_talks" title="2010–2011 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks">Israeli–Palestinian peace talks</a></li>

<li>2011 <a href="Israeli_Peace_Initiative" title="Israeli Peace Initiative">Israeli Peace Initiative</a></li>

<li>2013 <a href="2013%E2%80%932014_Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_peace_talks" title="2013–2014 Israeli–Palestinian peace talks">Israeli–Palestinian peace talks</a></li>

<li>2016 <a href="John_Kerry_Parameters" title="John Kerry Parameters">John Kerry Parameters</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">2019–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>2019 <a href="2020_Trump_Israel%E2%80%93Palestine_plan" title="2020 Trump Israel–Palestine plan">Trump peace plan</a></li>

<li>2020 <a href="Abraham_Accords" title="Abraham Accords">Abraham Accords</a>

<ul><li><a href="Israel%E2%80%93United_Arab_Emirates_normalization_agreement" title="Israel–United Arab Emirates normalization agreement">Israel–UAE normalization agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Bahrain%E2%80%93Israel_normalization_agreement" title="Bahrain–Israel normalization agreement">Bahrain–Israel normalization agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Israel%E2%80%93Sudan_normalization_agreement" title="Israel–Sudan normalization agreement">Israel–Sudan normalization agreement</a></li>

<li><a href="Israel%E2%80%93Morocco_normalization_agreement" title="Israel–Morocco normalization agreement">Israel–Morocco normalization agreement</a></li></ul></li>

<li>2022 <a href="Israeli%E2%80%93Lebanese_maritime_border_dispute" title="Israeli–Lebanese maritime border dispute">Israeli–Lebanese maritime border agreement</a></li>

<li>2025 <a href="Palestinian_Emirates_Plan" title="Palestinian Emirates Plan">Palestinian Emirates Plan</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q725043#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata745" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q725043#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata745" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1048700">FAST</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2003006996">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007561414105171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/98a26489-90cb-41fa-a22a-9d285450ad7a">Yale LUX</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-07-20" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Operation_Opera&oldid=1301643207">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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